Dope Test

Every year over 100,000 drug tests are conducted worldwide at a cost of $30 million. The drug tests are designed to detect and deter abuse of performance-enhancing drugs by competitors. The testing procedures for drug abuse in sports are strict and at times deemed unfair by athletes. They are deemed unfair because athletes are responsible for knowing what is banned despite the fact that additions are made almost daily to the list of banned substances. The best possible solution is to avoid all drugs unless listed on the allowed substance list.

There are some athletes who will try and beat the testing. When athletes know when a drug test will occur, they can prepare for it and thereby neutralize the effects of drug testing on the use of performance enhancing drugs and/or masking agents. Year-round short-notice and no-notice testing are the most effective means to curtail the use of training drugs because they make athletes always at risk to be tested.

DRUG TESTING PROCEDURE

The drug testing procedure begins with taking a urine sample. While this sounds simple, it initiates a formal and highly regulated procedure to ensure that the urine sample that arrives at the laboratory actually comes from the athlete in question, with no opportunity to tamper with the sample. Once selected for drug testing, the athlete is notified by an official and asked to sign a form acknowledging this notification. The athlete may or may not be accompanied by an official and must attend the testing station within the designated period. The testing station is supposed to be a private, comfortable place where plenty of drinks are available. Many times it is set up inside a specially designed mobile testing unit. Independent sampling officers, whom are trained and appointed by the respective governing body, carry out the collection of urine samples. Each officer carries a time-limited identity card and a letter of authority for the event to which they are allocated.

Before giving a urine sample, the athlete is told to select two numbered bottles. After providing the sample (about 100 ml), the athlete must voluntarily complete a form. The athlete declares any drug treatment taken in the previous seven days and must check and sign that the sample has been taken and placed in the bottles correctly. The urine sample is then sent for analysis to a laboratory currently accredited by the IOC. In the event of a positive test result, the laboratory will notify the governing body of the sport, who will then notify the athlete. The rules of the governing body of the particular sport determine what happens next. The rules vary across governing bodies, sports and countries. An athlete is usually suspended while a positive result is investigated, but has the right to have a second analysis of the urine sample. This analysis may be observed directly by the athlete or by the athlete's representative. There is then a hearing, at which time the athlete's case is presented. An appeal can be made, and there have been successful appeals both in the United States and other countries.

COLLECTING A URINE SAMPLE

The testing procedure must be strictly adhered to so that all athletes receive the same treatment. Collection of the urine sample has to be observed because drug abusers may attempt to falsify the results by tampering with the samples. Volume, pH, and in some cases specific gravity and temperature of the sample are tested immediately. These simple tests check for some of the known methods of cheating the drug tests at this early stage. The urine pH is tested to detect attempts at changing the nature of the sample, which can affect the analysis of certain drugs, as well as their metabolism and clearance. Sodium bicarbonate, for example, can be taken by mouth in order to change urine pH. The pH is also tested to verify that the level of degradation, which a sample may have experienced by the time it is tested, is within acceptable limits. The specific gravity is checked for attempts to dilute the concentration of drugs, as is the case by deliberate diuretic use.

To ensure that the sample actually comes from the athlete, the testing officer must be able to see the urine flow from the athlete into the bottle. Male athletes are asked to strip to their waist and lower their shorts to their knees. Female athletes must also be observed very closely while they void a sample. This procedure can be very awkward, embarrassing, and humiliating. For a young athlete, giving a urine sample under these circumstances can be very traumatizing. Many people, regardless of age, are uncomfortable with the idea of being observed while giving a urine sample. The situation is further complicated if an athlete has been competing in an endurance sport and is dehydrated or competing at a weight category where they are reluctant to drink excess fluid.

At least 75 mL must be given under close scrutiny and the urine is split into 2 portions as "A" and "B" bottles. The athlete chooses the two coded bottles and the samples are sealed by the athlete. In most cases, only the athlete handles the urine and collection containers until sealed. The containers are sealed with tamper-proof strips, placed inside other sealed containers, wrapped in tamper-evident seals and coded. The independent official observing the sample procedure records all of the information on a document. This initiates a chain-of-custody record to be continued by anyone who handles the specimen until the urine is used up or discarded in the laboratory. The laboratory staff never knows the athlete's name, only the bottle identification number. Everyone who handles the sample must understand the importance of the chain of custody and the essential role of maintaining it. The chain of custody guarantees that the sample content is protected and that the sample tested is from the correct athlete.

The possibility of sabotage of a urine sample has been raised many times by athletes. It is for this reason that that athletes should ensure that the testing procedure is observed rigorously for their own protection. Samples should be dispatched in the appropriate containers and all paperwork completed without any errors. After this the athlete is no longer part of the process and must rely on the integrity and accuracy of the system. The sample is then taken and sent by courier, along with a chain-of-custody document, to an accredited laboratory.

IS THIS VIOLATION?

While the test protocol may seem excessive and violate certain rights of privacy and decency, there are important reasons for this protocol. There are many reports of athletes using elaborate arrangements of catheters to provide an alternative sample, bringing condoms filled with drug free urine to the testing station, and even catheterizing themselves and instilling drug free urine. If athletes go to these lengths to avoid detection, the testing protocol must be strict.
At the elite level, athletes are subject to year-round random testing. At any time, an independent sampling officer may call unannounced and request a urine sample. While this comes across straightforward on paper, in practice there are many difficulties. Frequently, athletes travel the world and finding the athlete can be difficult. After the independent sampling officer asks around to find the athlete in question, it is unlikely that the testing remains a surprise.

The proper storage of samples is important to the reliability of the tests. Once collected, the sample must be protected so that the fluid, when tested in the laboratory, reflects the composition of the sample as it left the body of the person being tested. As part of sports doping policy, urine is not refrigerated or frozen until it reaches the laboratory. In a clinical setting, great care is taken to ensure that the sample tested is as near as possible to the condition in which it left the body. This is accomplished by adding a preservative or more often by refrigerating or freezing the sample. With worldwide testing in sports, samples are sent all over the world and there can be delays in delivering them to labs.

While refrigeration or freezing of the sample is the usual practice in the clinical setting, note that this is definitely not the case in sports. The addition of chemicals to prevent bacterial growth in the urine could preserve the specimen and may be a more practical alternative. Athletes, however, regard this method with some suspicion and think that this may introduce the possibility of tampering with the sample. Current scientific evidence indicates that their fears are misplaced. Urine contains thousands of bacteria from many different species.

This is even more the case for a sexually active female. Urine collected from a female athlete will contain skin cells and microorganisms from the intestine flushed to the vaginal area by sweat. Many bacteria are ubiquitous and survive even in tap-water plumbing; if the water were used to wash any of the sample containers, other microorganisms could be added to the sample. Bacteria, in a container to which urine is added, will flourish in such a medium that is infinitely richer in nutrients than the water in which they have survived. Many constituents of urine support the growth of such bacteria, and metabolism presents a serious problem in drug testing because of the risk of falsifying doping test results. In this regard, urine contains several steroids that are utilized by bacterial enzymes that can interconvert endogenous steroids to the extent of producing testosterone (T) in the urine. Because of the steroid concentrations in the urine, even a low conversion rate of steroids to T will produce a level of T sufficient to distort the test result. So athletes should be more concerned if officials don't add something to the urine sample and not the other way around.Banned Drug List

PixXx

Sunset

I took a picture of this beautiful sunset from our deck.

 

 

 

Cherry Cake

This is my progress on my Cherry Cake from Country Cottage Needleworks. I am stitching it on 32 ct Bay Leaf Jobelan. I really like the Crescent Colors floss.This is a SAL I am doing with Little House Needleworks group.

 

 

 

Brutus

This is Brutus our little rescue dog. He was so sick and covered in sores when we found him. I didn't really plan on having another dog but he is so sweet and adorable. He has healed up and his hair is growing back in. It kind of just sticks out. Dr. Williams said he is about 1 year old. He weighs 5 lbs and loves to lay in my lap and sleep. Link wasn't to happy with the idea of having a little brother but they are buddies now.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Peshawer Girl

Lahore Girl

Sweet Sexy Girls

how to Reduce Belly

If you are looking for ways on how to reduce belly fat and those sit-ups you have been doing are not working, you will receive the benefits of reading my article. With so many methods available online and all of the false information out there, you may be confused on what to look for and who to get your information from, but rest assured, the article that I have written for you may answer many of the problems you are currently experiencing.

If you did not know, excessive fat in your stomach area may be caused from cardiovascular problems, an over-indulgence in alcohols, a poor diet, slothfulness (procrastination), as well as other things that cause a buildup in the fat cells in your body. The only way to effectively kill your belly fat is to make a complete change in the way you live your life, which includes the way you eat, think, drink, and exercise:

1. A good way of knowing how to reduce belly fat is to eat a diet that cuts down on the calorie intake of your body. When you consume products that are low in saturated fats, as well as meats that are very lean, you will increase the chances of your belly fat disappearing from your stomach.

A big mistake that many people make is in thinking that not eating will solve their weight problems. However, if you do not put food in your system, you will never have the energy to do anything, including exercise, which will make you even fatter than you previously were (i.e. laziness). The human body doesn't function right without a good amount of nutrients, so if your body is insufficient in foods, your metabolism will slow down exceedingly to create a balance for the lack of food in your diet, which will create more weight problems for you once you try to eat again (if you starved yourself).

2. Another way to eliminate stomach fat is to reduce the servings of food that you consume each day, and like I said above, be sure to exercise daily (or 3-4 times a week, at least). With small portions, you can still satisfy your bodily hunger but at the same time, you will keep your metabolism at an all-time high which will make it easier for your body to burn fat.

By the way, another way of knowing how to reduce belly fat is to stop eating Doritos and potato chips and replace that junk food with carrots, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, brown rice, and even nuts.

3. As you know, having fat deposits in your stomach will make you less attractive, this may kill your confidence and make you feel very ugly, bloated, and maybe even disgusting. Instead of always driving everywhere, it may be a good thing for you to take a walk (or run) to the store as long as it's not too far from your house, as this will teach you to exercise and be more mobile (bodily, that is).

4. Also, it is good to do sit-ups, but sit-ups and crunches alone will not solve your problem if you don't balance the exercise with a proper diet. Sit-ups will make your stomach muscles more toned, and they can also be used to help you lose fat in your waist area as well. The experts often say that weight loss is 50% diet and 50% exercise, so I would recommend that you put an equal amount of time in both areas if you want sufficient results.

5. Be sure to leave out products that are high in sugar, as sugar is one of the main causes in fat not only in the belly and waist region, but also in all areas of fat in the body as well. Be sure to replace the soda that you may be drinking with at least 6-8 glasses of water daily, or possibly eliminate soda altogether from your diet. Also, replace the sugar with protein and fiber-rich foods, and you will be well on your way to a slim stomach.

6. Engaging in cardio and abdominal exercises (besides sit-ups) is another way you can learn how to reduce belly fat, as this combination will also improve your muscle mass when you're getting enough protein in your system. By the way, aerobics is an excellent way to cut down on the calorie intake of your body.

7. Last but not least, be sure to exercise greater control of your thoughts and emotions, as high levels of stress hormones can increase the fat that your stomach stores. When you experience chronic stress, your body pumps these kinds of hormones into your system which causes the fat in your waist area (or midsection) to have a major increase after while. Meditation, soothing music, and taking deep breaths all contribute to eliminating belly fat when used in conjunction with the tips listed above.

8. Try to stay away from salty foods, as salt is known for absorbing water. Only consume products that are either low or free of salt contents, as your body will hold less water and give you a leaner body frame when it does not have all that salt in it.

9. Last but not least: If you have the discipline, I'd recommend that you switch to a diet that is completely composed of fresh fruits, raw vegetables, and anything organic. Avoid products that are from dairy, meat, many types of fish, and once again, junk foods!

However, you can eat the recommended foods (above) however much you want without gaining "bad" weight, which is good for those who want a sexier body.

Want to learn How to Reduce Belly Fat in record-timing? If so, you have found the right resource, so don't wait until tomorrow, eliminate your stomach fat today!

What is Calisthenics

Calisthenics are a form of dynamic exercise consisting of a variety of simple, often rhythmical, movements, generally using minimal equipment or apparatus. They are intended to increase body strength and flexibility with movements such as bending, jumping, swinging, twisting or kicking, using only one's body weight for resistance. They are usually conducted in concert with stretches. Calisthenics when performed vigorously and with variety can benefit both muscular and cardiovascular fitness, in addition to improving psychomotor skills such as balance, agility and coordination. it is also a very effective way of toning the hips, thighs and waist.

Groups such as sports teams and military units often perform leader-directed group calisthenics as a form of synchronized physical training (often including a customized "call and response" routine), in order to increase group cohesion and discipline. Calisthenics are also popular as a component of physical education in primary and secondary schools over much of the globe.

History

The history of calisthenics is linked to Greco-Roman gymnastics. Calisthenics originated in ancient Greece, where it was mentioned in a Persian scout report on Spartan warriors before the Battle of Thermopylae, with the Persians interpreting the odd synchronized movements as a form of dance, and thus a sign of weakness^{[citation needed]}.

Disciples of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn brought their version of gymnastics to the United States, while Catherine Beecher and Dio Lewis set up physical education programs for women in the 19th Century.^[3] Organized systems of calisthenics in America took a back seat to competitive sports after the Battle of the Systems, when the states mandated physical education systems^{[citation needed]}.

[edit] Common exercises

A standard chin-up, palms facing chest, using open grip

In addition to the various stretches, some of the more common calisthenic exercises include:

• Lunges

Performed by bringing one leg forward and almost kneeling on the back leg. Once the front leg creates a perfect 90 degree angle you stand up and alternate legs. Keeping your back straight and chest out is important for proper form. There are many variations for lunges.

• Jumping jacks

Performed by jumping to a position with the legs spread wide and the hands touching overhead and then returning to a position with the feet together and the arms at the sides.

• Sit-ups

Performed by lying down with the back on the floor, knees bent, and bottoms of feet against the floor. The shoulders are then lifted off the floor by tightening abdominal muscles and bringing the chest closer to the knees. The final movement is to lower the back to the floor with a smooth movement. This trains the abdominal muscles.

A US Marine performs a pull-up, a common calisthenic exercise.

• Crunches

Like the sit-up, except instead of bringing the whole torso area closer to the knees, only a concentrated but shorter movement of the abdominals is performed. Shoulder blades are lifted off the floor, and abdominals tightened.

• Push-ups

Performed face down on the floor, palms against floor under the shoulders, toes curled upwards against the floor. The arms are used to lift the body while maintaining a straight line from head to heel. The arms of the subject should go from fully extended in the high position to nearly fully flexed in the low position, while the subject makes sure to avoid resting on the floor. Resting is only done in the high position of the exercise. Chest, shoulders, and triceps are trained with this exercise.

• Pull-ups

An overhead bar (sometimes called a chin-up bar) is grasped using a shoulder-width overhand (palms facing forward) grip. The subject lifts their body up, chin level with the bar, and keeping the back straight throughout. The bar remains in front of the subject at all times. The subject then slowly returns to starting position in a slow controlled manner. This primarily trains the lats or upper back muscles, as well as the forearms. An underhand grip variation or chin-up trains both the back and biceps.

• Squats

Standing with feet shoulder width apart, the subject squats down as far as possible, bringing the arms forward parallel to the floor. The subject then returns to standing position. Squats train the quadriceps, hamstrings, calves, and gluteals.

• Calf-raises

Standing on a platform with an edge where the heels can hang (e.g. a curb), lift the body on the balls of the feet. The subject then slowly returns to starting position. This trains the gastrocnemius. A seated calf-raise trains the soleus.

Animation of a full push-up

• Dips

Done between parallel bars or facing either direction of trapezoid bars found in some gyms. Feet are crossed with either foot in front and the body is lowered until the elbows are in line with the shoulders. The subject then pushes up until the arms are fully extended, but without locking the elbows. Dips focus primarily on the chest, triceps, and deltoids.

• Flutter kick

Lying on your back, hands in fists under buttocks, move feet up and down near the ground

Yoga and Health

Yoga has been practiced for more than 5,000 years, and currently, close to 11 million Americans are enjoying its health benefits. Yoga can hardly be called a trend.

Most Westernized yoga classes focus on learning physical poses, which are called asanas. They also usually include some form of breathing technique and possibly a meditation technique as well. Some yoga classes are designed purely for relaxation. But there are styles of yoga that teach you how to move your body in new ways. Choosing one of these styles offers the greatest health benefits by enabling you to develop your flexibility, strength, and balance.

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Religious and spiritual values are important to patients coping with cancer. The terms spirituality and religion are often used in place of each other, but for many people they have different meanings. Religion may be defined as a specific set of beliefs and practices, usually within an organized group. Spirituality may be defined as an individual's sense of peace, purpose, and connection to others, and beliefs about the meaning of life. Spirituality may be found and expressed through an organized...

Yoga and Flexibility

When some people think of yoga, they imagine having to stretch like a gymnast. That makes them worry that they're too old, unfit, or "tight" to do yoga. The truth is you're never too old to improve flexibility.

The series of yoga poses called asanas work by safely stretching your muscles. This releases the lactic acid that builds up with muscle use and causes stiffness, tension, pain, and fatigue. In addition, yoga increases the range of motion in joints. It may also increase lubrication in the joints. The outcome is a sense of ease and fluidity throughout your body.

Yoga stretches not only your muscles but all of the soft tissues of your body. That includes ligaments, tendons, and the fascia sheath that surrounds your muscles. And no matter your level of yoga, you most likely will see benefits in a very short period of time. In one study, participants had up to 35% improvement in flexibility after only eight weeks of yoga. The greatest gains were in shoulder and trunk flexibility.

Yoga and Strength

Some styles of yoga, such as ashtanga and power yoga, are more vigorous than others. Practicing one of these styles will help you improve muscle tone.

But even less vigorous styles of yoga, such as Iyengar or hatha, which focuses on less movement and more precise alignment in poses, can provide strength and endurance benefits.

Many of the poses, such as downward dog, upward dog, and the plank pose, build upper-body strength. This becomes crucial as people age. The standing poses, especially if you hold them for several long breaths, build strength in your hamstrings, quadriceps, and abdominal muscles. Poses that strengthen the lower back include upward dog and the chair pose. When practiced correctly, nearly all poses build core strength in the deep abdominal muscles.

Yoga Can Help Posture

With increased flexibility and strength comes better posture. Most standing and sitting poses develop core strength. That's because you're counting on your deep abdominals to support and maintain each pose. With a stronger core, you're more likely to sit and stand "tall." Another benefit of yoga is the increased body awareness. This heightened awareness tells you more quickly when you're slouching or slumping so you can adjust your posture.

Great Compare of the World

Moin Akhtar (Urdu: معین اختر, also spelled as, Moeen Akhtar; 24 December 1950 – 22 April 2011) was a Pakistani television, film and stage actor, as well as a comedian, impersonator, and a host. He was also a play writer, singer, film director and a producer.

Akhtar was born in Karachi to Urdu speaking parents migrated from Mumbai India , was highly dynamic and versatile performer, he made his debut for television on 6 September 1966, in a variety show held on PTV to celebrate the first defense day of Pakistan‎. Since then, he has performed several roles in TV plays/shows, later making a team with Anwar Maqsood and Bushra Ansari.

He was beloved for providing humor for people of all ages, and with an etiquette that remains unmatched. His attempts to avoid vulgarity in his humor rendered him a favorite amongst family audiences. Akhtar was fluent in several languages, including English, Bengali, Sindhi, Punjabi, Memon, Pashto, Gujarati and Urdu. He performed not only in Pakistan but played in several stage shows like Bakra Qiston Pe and Buddha Ghar Pe Hai with Umer Sharif in India too.

Moin Akhtar rose to the national spotlight and gathered critical acclaim for his performance in the drama Rosy /Rozy (روذی), in which he played the role of a female TV artist. Rozy was an Urdu adaptation of Hollywood movie Tootsie starring Dustin Hoffman. Moreover, in a talk-show namely Loose Talk, which began in 2005 on ARY Digital, he appeared as a different character in each and every of over 400 episodes interviewed by Anwar Maqsood, the writer and the host of the program. Akhter also briefly hosted the game show Kya Aap Banaingay Crorepati?, the Pakistani version of Who Wants to be a Millionaire?.

He was awarded honorary citizenship of Dallas in 1996 for his achievements. He is also listed among Amazing Pakistanis of all time

Selected television serials

• Rozi
• Dollar Man
• Makaan No 47
• Half Plate
• Family-93
• Eid Train
• Bandar Road Se Keamari
• Such Much
• Aangan Tehra
• Baby
• Rafta Rafta

Host

He was the host of the show in which

• King Husain of Jordan was invited.
• The Prime minister of Gambia, Dawoodi-Al-Joza, was invited.
• President Zia-ul-Haq was invited.
• Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was invited.
• President General Yahya Khan was invited.
• President Ghulam Ishaq Khan was invited.
• President Pervez Musharaf was invited and he mimicked the president in his presence.
• Moin Akhter Show
• Lagay raho Moin Bhai

Television shows

• Fifty Fifty (comedy serial from PTV)
• Show Sha
• Showtime
• Studio Dhhaai (Studio 2.5)
• Studio Pone Teen (Studio 2.75)
• Loose Talk (From ARY Digital)

Songs and albums

Album - Tera Dil Bhi Yun Hi Tadpe

• "Chhorr Ke Jaane Wale"
• "Choat Jigar Pe Khai Hai"
• "Ro-Ro Ke De Raha Hai"
• "Tera Dil Bhi Yun Hi Tadpe"
• "Dard Hi Sirf Dil Ko Mila"
• "Dil Ro Raha Hai"
• "Hoten Hai Bewafa"

Death

He died on 22 April 2011 at about 6:15pm in Karachi after suffering from a heart attack. He is survived by his wife, three daughters and two sons. The funeral prayers of Moin Akhtar were offered in Tauheed Mosque near his residence. Thousands of people attended the funeral prayer which was led by Junaid Jamshed

girl in swat river

girl in swat 

Girl In Hijab 1

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Girl In Hijab

paki girl photo

sara khan 2

Sara khan

sara khan 1

pakistani girl

girl kiss

History Of Horse

Asia

Although horses were domesticated at different times by people in different parts of the world, the oldest evidence of humans taming horses comes from Asia. Prehistoric horse cultures have been found in what is now the Southern Ukraine, Caucasus and Central Asia. These people were nomads, wandering the broad, grassy steppes, herding cattle, sheep or horses and hunting wild animals.

They practically lived on horseback, using the horse for food, mainly in the form of mare's milk, as well as transportation. Horses were so important that they were often buried with tribal chiefs in elaborate tombs below ground.

In the more developed civilisations of Persia, China and Japan, the horse was valuable military asset and carried messengers to all points of the kingdoms. Horses were celebrated in paintings, poetry, pottery and legend. Rustum, the Persian hero, rode his magic horse Rakish in battle and on adventures. Pottery horses of the T'ang Dynasty are supreme examples of Chinese art.

The horse made empires possible. Muslim warriors on horseback took control of lands from Persia to Spain in the 700's. Jengiz Khan and his mounted Mongol warriors conquered the largest empire in human history, from China to the shores of the eastern Mediterranean in the 12th Century. The horse enabled rulers to administer their far-flung territories by using couriers to send messages and instructions to local governors. The style of riding introduced into the Middle East by the warriors of the Prophet spread through Europe and eventually formed the basis for the style of riding now known as English saddle or hunt seat.

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Africa

In northern Africa, Arab and Barb horses provided the mounts for the armies that created great kingdoms in Mali, Niger and Sudan. The ruler of Timbuktu was said to have had 3000 horseman in his troop and would purchase the best ones from each caravan that passed by. The sub-tropical and tropical climates of central and western Africa make it almost impossible to raise horses locally.

The presence of disease-carrying insects, especially the tsetse fly, and another factor limiting the ability of horses to survive in Africa. Horses were scarce for other reasons: Africans traditionally herded cattle, sheep and goats on foot, and the African soil was too poor for large-scale farming. All these factors combined to leave little need for horses in daily life. As a result, their use was limited to the military and to the ruling classes, who enjoyed using horses in elaborate displays of wealth, such as the durbar in northern Nigeria.

South of the jungle formed by the great Congo Basin, which divides Africa from East to West, the horse was unknown until Dutch and English settlers arrived. They used horses in the same way in Europe, for farming, herding and travel. The native Africans had no need for the horse in farming and herding, but they used horses occasionally for transportation. As a result, the horse did not play an important role in the economy or society of southern Africa, unlike elsewhere in the world.

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Europe

Modern Europe has its origins in the kingdoms of the Middle Ages, which have their origins in the feudal system, which was made possible by the horse. More exactly, feudalism was made possible by the introduction of the stirrup into Europe in the 800's. The stirrup turned a man on horseback into a formidable fighting unit. The mounted knight in armour was the mainstay of the medieval army. The system of land ownership required to support the knight developed into a highly complex social organisation. The feudal kingdoms eventually evolved into the nations of Europe, as we know them today.

Stirrups helped not only the knight, but also the merchant, the traveller and the courier of the king. A rider with stirrups is much more secure than a rider without them and the result was to vastly increase the use of the horse for riding.

In addition to the stirrup, the shoulder collar, another imported piece of equipment, helped the horse to become important in European social and economic development. During the Roman Empire, long before the Middle Ages, horses were used in almost exclusively for war or sport. They did not usually pull ploughs or carts because the Roman harnesses were not efficient. The shoulder collar enabled the horses to pull ploughs and wagons. Stronger and faster than the ox, the horse became much more useful to the peasant and the merchant.

Until the invention of the internal combustion engine, the horse was Europe's most important source of energy. The word 'Horsepower' is still used today to measure engines.

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North America

It is hard to imagine the history of North America without horses, yet horses had vanished from the Western Hemisphere many thousands of years before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Remains of ancient bones found in parts of the United States indicate that horses may have been hunted by humans, but by the time the Europeans began to explore the continent, the horse was gone. It was not even a memory among the native tribes.

The Spanish conquistadores brought horses back into North America in the early 1500's. Although vastly outnumbered, the Spanish were able to conquer the Aztec empire in Mexico as well as most what is now the western United States because the native populations had never seen horses and usually ran away in terror from their first sight of these strange animals.

Exploration and settlement of the vast North American continent would have been much more difficult, if not impossible, without horses. Although oxen pulled the pioneers' wagons west into the prairies, they are slower than horses and are not as useful. Without horses, for example, there would have been no Pony Express to deliver the mail, no cowboys to round up cattle and no stagecoaches to carry people from town to town. The horse pulled the farmer's plough, carried the cavalry soldier in battle and brought the doctor his patients.

The Western style of riding developed directly from the medieval Spanish saddles, and the cowboy's seat, with long stirrups and straight leg, is the same seat used by a knight in armour. The universal image of the West is the cowboy and his horse.

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South America

The Spanish conquistadors brought horses to South America in the 1500's The native people had never before seen these large creatures and they were at first terrified at the sight of men on horseback. As a result, mounted soldiers were able to conquer the native empires and establish Spanish rule over much of the continent. Afterwards, horses continued to be imported by Spanish and Portuguese colonists for use in farming, ranching and transportation, just as they were used in Europe.

In South America today, horses remain valuable for ranching on the great cattle-raising estancias of Argentina and on the ranchos of Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and northern Brazil. The gaucho on the his pony is a symbol of the pampa, the South American plain, just as the cowboy is a symbol of the open range in the western United States. On the pampas, the horses are not stabled or corralled but range free in herds called remudas, which are led by a dominant mare. The mare is trained to follow the gaucho on his rounds, and when the gaucho's horse tires, he simply selects a fresh mount from the remuda.

Along with the use of horses in herding, the European settlers brought their traditions of horse-based sports. Polo and racing remain popular today in many countries of South America. The South American breeds, developed from fine horses bred on the Iberian Peninsula since Roman times, are prized for their beauty and stamina.

Animal with three eyes

Tuatara heaven.

Tuataras survived because no predators invaded New Zealand. Terrestrial mammals failed to cross the Tasman Ocean, which separated New Zealand from Australia by opening about 90 million years ago. (See tectonics section). Tuataras are unusual reptiles, since they like cool weather. They do not survive well over 25 degrees centigrade but can live below 5 degrees, by hibernating in burrows. New Zealand climate was just right.

Then humans arrived and introduced kiore, dogs, ferrets, pigs and cats...

Tuatara now only lives on predator-free outlying islands, but can be seen on the mainland, in "protective custody." The best place to find them is at the Invercargill Museum where a small colony of live reptiles lives in a small bush setting, behind glass. The tuataras are reproducing, which is good evidence they are enjoying the Invercargill environment (although they get a bit of help from oxytocin injections).

Photography by John Wattie.

Tuataras do not live in lovely forest like this any more.
The Maori rat (Kiore) made it impossible to live on the mainland.
This whole picture is a cheat - a captive Tuatara melded with a misty, Whirinaki Forest background.
Nature photographers are not supposed to do that - unless they are honest and let you know it happened.
So, this is how Tuatara would have looked, before humans messed up the mainland environment.

Two Species

Genetic testing has shown there are two species of tuatara: Sphenodon Punctatus and S. Guntheri.
There are also DNA subspecies, but lets not get involved with all that.

Burrows

Tuataras live separate from each other in well defended burrows. Sea-birds: petrels, prions and shearwaters, sometimes share tunnels with the reptiles. This is not safe for the birds, for wily Tuataras are partial to eggs and chickens in spring time.
Perhaps Tuatara tells the birds stories on rainy nights about him being their ancient ancestor and having every right to live with them.

Primitive reptile on the line to dinosaurs and birds.

Tuatara's relatives were the beak headed reptiles (Rhinocephalia). These spread all around the world 200 million years ago, but died out 100 million years ago. Only Tuatara survived to become a "living fossil". Tuatara (Sphenodon) is often used by zoologists as an example of about as basic a reptile as they can find. "The diapsid reptile Sphenodon is the most unspecialised living amniote." The evolution of both reptiles and birds can be described starting from tuatara anatomy. This does NOT mean tuatara is the common precursor, just that comparative anatomical diagrams of reptiles and birds can start conveniently with this animal. The evolution diagrams showing a Sphenodon type of primitive reptile changing into a bird are the work of Svend Palm. Click on the picture to reach his fascinating web site dealing in considerable detail with evolution of reptiles and birds and the origin of flight.

Svend Palm's diagrams converted to a changing GIF file.

Teeth

Tuataras emerge from burrows, often at night, to eat any animal they can: mostly insects such as wetas, also worms, slugs and millipedes. Tuataras are too lazy to chase their prey. They just sit and if anything small is silly enough to pass by, Tuatara suddenly snaps it up. They have a powerful bite and can hold on for long periods. Adult tuataras also enjoy eating young tuatara. The children emerge in daylight, when adults are often sleeping, which saves them from a cannibal death. Lower teeth fit into a groove between two rows of upper teeth. The teeth are actually made of bone and fastened to the outer surface of the jaw bone. Snakes' teeth are like this too (acrodont). Old tuataras are often edentulous and just eat with their jaw bones, like old people who have lost their false teeth. Loss of teeth is very serious for carnivores, like lions and is often a death sentence. Man-eating tigers in India have often lost teeth and cannot kill their faster, normal prey any more. When eating slugs, teeth are not essential and so old Tuataras get by very well. Lizards have plurodont teeth, supported by a shelf of bone. This is one of the reasons tuataras are not lizards. Crocodiles have thecodont teeth, which are set in the bone. Humans also have thecodont teeth sitting in sockets.

Tuatara: mouth Tuatara in 3D: red/cyan anaglyph: Click for bigger version

Reproduction

The female buries up to 19 soft shell eggs in soil, but not often.
Life is slow in the cold blooded reptile world and egg laying occurs about once per 4 years.
Even laying in soft soil is a contested activity, for other females may dig up the eggs to lay their own. No interest is taken in the eggs, which are left to hatch by themselves just over a year later.

Males are bigger than females and have bigger spines down their backs. "Tuatara" apparently means "old spiny back" in Maori. Males can mate every year. Females taking 4 years is a bit frustrating for them. So males fight vigorously over receptive females, and often show combat scars. The winning male inflates his throat and raises his spines while slowly circling the lady tuatara, lifting his body up and down in a comical fashion with each step. Eventually the girl nods to indicate she is impressed and he is acceptable for father of her eggs. The juveniles mature slowly over 9 years (in captivity) to 20 years (in the wild). Tuataras live for 60 to 100 years.
These ancient reptiles are like modern humans in life span and aggression
- but will humans last over one hundred million years?

Gender

The sex of Tuataras is decided by soil temperature around the eggs.
Warm soil causes males, cool soil leads to females.
Other reptiles show this peculiarity too (crocodiles, turtles).
Most other animals have gender decided by X and y chromosomes.

Third eye

Tuataras have three eyes, but the third eye is only tiny. It grows on top of the head, under the skin in adults, and has a retina with nerve connection to the pineal. The pineal gland, in the middle of the brain, produces melatonin; which influences sleep and hibernation. The amount of light falling on the third eye may trigger these biological cycles. There is a tiny extra hole in the skull for the third eye: called the parietal foramen (although it is in the middle). We will review the big temporal foramina shortly, since they are not eye sockets.

Some scientists say the third eye has no function at all.

Tuataras hibernate - or at least are dormant in their burrows in winter. On a warm winter day, they will come out to enjoy the sun. This seems more a function of temperature than of light (since they live underground). Maybe the third eye has little to do with hibernation after all

Use of mouse in computer

Your computers mouse is a pointing device that is used in a windows operating system environment. It is a device designed to be held in a single hand and usually consists or two or more buttons, plus one or more wheels. When you move the mouse on its mat, it'll typically result in a cursor on your screen moving.

Your computer mouse is used primarily for clicking, dragging, copying and executing programs. With a combination of clicks and button pressing on your keyboard, your able to perform specific tasks such as selecting, dragging and dropping, rollover, page up & down and a whole host of other actions.

The original mouse was the mechanical ball; it has since been replaced with the latest optimal version. These newest additions are both lighter in weight when compared to the old mechanical ball mouse. They are also far more precise. These types of mouses can easily be picked up at any online computer store. Today, the wireless mouse is the most popular because of the most obvious advantages of easier handling, less clutter and competitive pricing.

The Different Types of Computer Mouses

There are a number of different mouse types such as the laser, wireless, ball and optical mouse. It is also possible to categorise these different mouses on the basis of their DPI resolution. Wireless mouses use Bluetooth, infrared or radio signals whereas the wired solutions use a USB or PS/2 connector.

Computer Mouse Accessories:

In order for you to use a mechanical mouse optimally, you'll need a mouse pad. However, the laser and optical mouses are capable of functioning without these pads

James Bond

James Bond 007 is a fictional character created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short story collections. The fictional British Secret Intelligence Service agent has also been used in the longest running and most financially successful English-language film franchise to date, starting in 1962 with Dr. No

After Fleming's death in 1964, subsequent James Bond novels were written by Kingsley Amis, John Gardner, Raymond Benson, Sebastian Faulks and Jeffery Deaver. Moreover, Christopher Wood novelised two screenplays, Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond while other writers have authored unofficial versions of the character.

There have been 22 films in the EON Productions series to date, the most recent of which, Quantum of Solace, was released on 31 October 2008 (UK). In addition there has been an American television adaptation and two independent feature productions. Apart from movies and television, James Bond has also been adapted for many other media, including radio plays, comic strips and video games.

The EON Productions films are generally termed as "official", by fans of the series, originating with the purchase of the James Bond film rights by producer Harry Saltzman in the early 1960s.

Creation and inspiration

Basic Bond coat of arms with motto

Commander Sir James Bond, (KCMG, RNVR) is an officer of the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS; commonly known as MI6). He was created in January 1952 by British journalist Ian Fleming while on holiday at his Jamaican estate, Goldeneye. The hero was named after the American ornithologist James Bond, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide book Birds of the West Indies. Fleming, a keen birdwatcher, had a copy of Bond's field guide at Goldeneye. Of the name, Fleming once said in a Reader's Digest interview, "I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, 'James Bond' was much better than something more interesting, like 'Peregrine Carruthers.' Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure — an anonymous, blunt instrument wielded by a government department."

Nevertheless, news sources speculated about real spies or other covert agents after whom James Bond might have been modelled or named, such as Sidney Reilly or William Stephenson, best-known by his wartime intelligence codename of Intrepid. Although they are similar to Bond, Fleming confirmed none as the source figure, nor did Ian Fleming Publications nor any of Fleming's biographers, such as John Pearson or Andrew Lycett. Historian Keith Jeffery speculates in his authorized history of MI6, that Bond may be modeled on Fleming's close friend, Bill "Biffy" Dunderdale, a MI6 agent whose sophisticated persona and penchant for pretty women and fast cars closely matches that of Bond.

James Bond's parents are Andrew Bond, from village of Glencoe (Argyll, Scotland), and Monique Delacroix, from Yverdon (Vaud, Switzerland). Their nationalities were established in On Her Majesty's Secret Service. Fleming emphasised Bond's Scottish heritage in admiration of Sean Connery's cinematic portrayal, whereas Bond's mother is named after a Swiss fiancée of Fleming's. A planned, but unwritten, novel would have portrayed Bond's mother as a Scot. Ian Fleming was a member of a prominent Scottish banking family.^[13] Although John Pearson's fictional biography of Bond gives him a birth date on 11 November (Armistice Day) 1920, the books themselves are inconsistent on the matter. In Casino Royale, he is said to have bought a car in 1933 and to have been an experienced gambler before World War II. Two books later, in Moonraker, he is said to be in his mid-thirties; the setting of this book can be no earlier than 1954 as it refers to the South Goodwin Lightship, which was lost in that year. There is a further reference to Bond's age in You Only Live Twice, when Tanaka tells him he was born in the Year of the Rat (1924/25 or 1912/13). The books were written over a 12-year period during which Bond's age, when mentioned, thus varies, but is usually around 40. In the novel On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Bond's family motto is found to be Orbis non sufficit ("The world is not enough"). The novel also states that the family that used this motto may not necessarily be the same Bond family from which James Bond came.

Hoagy Carmichael—another James Bond visual model.

After completing the manuscript for Casino Royale, Fleming allowed his friend (and later editor) William Plomer to read it. Plomer liked it and submitted it to Jonathan Cape, who did not like it as much. Cape finally published it in 1953 on the recommendation of Fleming's older brother Peter, an established travel writer.

Most researchers agree that James Bond is a romanticised version of Ian Fleming, himself a jet-setting womaniser. Both Fleming and Bond attended the same schools, preferred the same foods (scrambled eggs and coffee), maintained the same habits (drinking, smoking, wearing short-sleeve shirts), shared the same notions of the perfect woman in looks and style, and had similar naval career paths (both rising to the rank of naval Commander). They also shared similar height, hairstyle, and eye colour. Some suggest that Bond's suave and sophisticated persona is based on that of a young Hoagy Carmichael. In Casino Royale, Vesper Lynd remarks, "Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless." Likewise, in Moonraker, Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is "certainly good-looking . . . Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way. That black hair falling down over the right eyebrow. Much the same bones. But there was something a bit cruel in the mouth, and the eyes were cold."

Fleming did admit to being partly inspired by a story recounted to him which took place during his service in the Naval Intelligence Division of the Admiralty. The incident is depicted in Casino Royale, when Ralph Izzard finds himself involved in a card game, playing poker against covert Nazi intelligence agents at a casino in Pernambuco, Brazil.

Novels and related works

In February 1952, Ian Fleming began writing his first James Bond novel. At the time, Fleming was the foreign manager for Kemsley Newspapers, owners of The Daily Express in London. Upon accepting the job, Fleming asked for two months' yearly vacation in his contract—time spent writing in Jamaica. Between 1953 and his death in 1964, Fleming published twelve novels and one short-story collection (a second collection was published posthumously). Later, continuation novels were written by Kingsley Amis (as Robert Markham), John Gardner, Charlie Higson, and Raymond Benson, who was the first American author of James Bond. The Young Bond series of novels was begun in 2005, by Charlie Higson.

In July 2007, it was announced that Sebastian Faulks has been commissioned to write a new Bond novel to commemorate Fleming's 100th Birthday. The book — titled Devil May Care – was published on 27 May 2008.

The EON films

In the late 1950s, EON Productions guaranteed the film adaptation rights for every 007 novel except for Casino Royale (those rights were recovered in 1999). In 1962, the first adaptation Dr. No was made, which featured Sean Connery as 007. Connery starred in six more films after his initial portrayal (including 1983's Never Say Never Again, which was not part of the EON series). George Lazenby replaced Connery (for one film) before the latter's last EON film Diamonds Are Forever, after which the part was played by Roger Moore (for seven films), Timothy Dalton (for two films), Pierce Brosnan (for four films) and Daniel Craig (two films to 2008). As of 2008, there have been 22 films in the EON series. The 21st film, Casino Royale, with Daniel Craig as James Bond, premiered on 14 November 2006, with the film going on general release in Asia and the Middle East the following day. Notably, it is the first Bond film to have been released in China. The second James Bond film to feature Craig is Quantum of Solace, which gets its title from a short story of the same name by Ian Fleming (For Your Eyes Only, 1960), but shares no similarities with the plot.

In April 2010, EON Productions suspended development of Bond 23 indefinitely due to MGM's crippling debt and uncertain future. Prior to this suspension, Craig was expected to return to the franchise for a third time. On 11 January 2011, MGM sent out a press releasing announcing the 23rd Bond film, starring Daniel Craig, will be released on 9 November 2012. The press release reveals that "Sam Mendes [is] directing [the] screenplay written by Neal Purvis, Robert Wade and John Logan."

The film series has grossed over $4 billion (£2 billion) (nearly $11 billion when adjusted for inflation) worldwide, making it the highest grossing film series ever. The 22nd and newest movie in the series, Quantum of Solace, was released in the UK on 31 October 2008. As of 9 November 2008, global box office totals for Quantum of Solace were almost $161 million (£103 million), placing the Bond series ahead of the Harry Potter film series even when not adjusting for inflation